manfaat koperasi sekolah
1. Manfaat Koperasi Sekolah
a) Siswa memperoleh pengetahuan dan pengalaman mengelola koperasi. Hal itu merupakan bekal bagi para siswa untuk hidup dimasyarakat dalam berkoperasi dan berusaha.
b) Siswa akan mengenal dan lebih memahami selak-beluk berwiraswasta dan hubungan bisnis, sehingga diharapkan mampu mencoba membuka usaha di bidang jasa dan perdagangan.
c) Siswa lebih mudah membeli makanan di dalam lingkungan sekolah yang terjamin kebersihannya.
d) Siswa lebih mudah membeli buku-buku pelajaran, alat-alat tulis, alat-alat praktik,dan pakaian seragam yang harganya sama dengan toko di luar dengan tidak perlu mengeluarkan ongkos angkutan.
Selasa, 09 November 2010
SEJARAH PERKEMBANGAN KOPERASI DI INDONESIA
“Perekonomian disusun sebagai usah besama berdasarkan atas asas kekeluargaan” Pasal 33 ayat 1 UUD 1945.
Bangsa Indonesia sendiri telah lama mengenal kekeluargaan dan kegotongroyongan, yang dipraktekkan oleh nenek moyang bangsa Indonesia. Kebiasaan-kebiasaan tersebut, merupakan input untuk Pasal 33 ayat 1 UUD 1945 yang dijadikan dasar/pedoman pelaksanaan Koperasi. Kebiasaan-kebiasaan nenek moyang yang turun-temurun itu dapat dijumpai di berbagai daerah di Indonesia di antaranya adalah Arisan untuk daerah Jawa Tengah dan Jawa Timur, paketan, mitra cai dan ruing mungpulung daerah Jawa Barat, kerja sama pengairan yang terkenal dengan Subak untuk daerah Bali, dan Julo-julo untuk daerah Sumatra Barat merupakan sifat-sifat hubungan sosial, dan menunjukkan usaha atau kegiatan atasdasar kadar kesadaran berpribadi dan kekeluargaan. Bentuk-bentuk ini yang lebih bersifat kekeluargaan, kegotongroyongan, hubungan social, nonprofit dan kerjasama disebut Pra Koperasi. Pelaksanaan yang bersifat pra-koperasi terutama di pedesaan masih dijumpai, meskipun arus globlisasi terus merambat ke pedesaan.
Adanya kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi pada pertengahan abad ke-18 telah mengubah wajah dunia. Berbagai penemuan di bidang teknologi ( revolusi industri ) melahirkan tata dunia ekonomi baru. Tatanan dunia ekonomi menjajdi terpusat pada keuntungan perseorangan, yaitu kaum pemilik modal ( kapitalisme ). Sistem ekonomi kapitalis / liberal memberikan keuntungan yang sebesar-besarnya kepada pemilik modal dan melahirkan kemelaratan dan kemiskinan bagi masyarakat ekonomi lemah.
Dalam kemiskinan dan kemelaratan ini, muncul kesadaran masyarakat untuk memperbaiki nasibnya sendiri dengan mendirikan koperasi. Pada tahun 1844 lahirlah koperasi pertama di Inggris yang terkenal dengan nama Koperasi Rochdale di bawah pimpinan Charles Howart. Di Jerman, Frederich Willhelm Raiffeisen dan Hermann Schulze memelopori Koperasi Simpan Pinjam. Di Perancis, muncul tokoh-tokoh kperasi seperti Charles Fourier, Louis Blance, dan Ferdinand Lassalle. Demikian pula di Denmark. Denmark menjadi Negara yang paling berhasil di dunia dalam mengembangkan ekonominya melalui koperasi. Kemajuan industri di Eropa akhirnya meluas ke Negara-negara lain, termasuk Indonesia.
Sejarah kelahiran dan berkembangnya koperasi di negara maju (barat) dan negara berkembang memang sangat diametral. Di barat sendiri koperasi lahir sebagai gerakan untuk melawan ketidakadilan pasar, oleh karena itu tumbuh dan berkembang dalam suasana persaingan pasar. Sedangkan di negara berkembang koperasi dirasa perlu dihadirkan dalam kerangka membangun institusi yang dapat menjadi mitra negara dalam menggerakkan pembangunan untuk mencapai kesejahteraan masyarakat. Oleh karena itu kesadaran antara kesamaan dan kemuliaan tujuan negara dan gerakan koperasi, maka berbagai peraturan perundangan yang mengatur koperasi dilahirkan dengan maksud mempercepat pengenalan koperasi dan memberikan arah bagi pengembangan koperasi serta dukungan/perlindungan yang diperlukan.
Di Indonesia pengenalan koperasi memang dilakukan oleh dorongan pemerintah, bahkan sejak pemerintahan penjajahan Belanda telah mulai diperkenalkan. Gerakan koperasi sendiri mendeklarasikan sebagai suatu gerakan sudah dimulai sejak tanggal 12 Juli 1947 melalui Kongres Koperasi di Tasikmalaya. Pengalaman di tanah air kita lebih unik karena koperasi yang pernah lahir dan telah tumbuh secara alami di jaman penjajahan, kemudian setelah kemerdekaan diperbaharui dan diberikan kedudukan yang sangat tinggi dalam penjelasan undang-undang dasar. Dan atas dasar itulah kemudian melahirkan berbagai penafsiran bagaimana harus mengembangkan koperasi. Paling tidak dengan dasar yang kuat tersebut sejarah perkembangan koperasi di Indonesia telah mencatat tiga pola pengembangan koperasi. Ciri utama perkembangan koperasi di Indonesia adalah dengan pola penitipan kepada program yaitu :
(i) Program pembangunan secara sektoral seperti koperasi pertanian, koperasi desa, KUD;
(ii) Lembaga-lembaga pemerintah dalam koperasi pegawai negeri dan koperasi fungsional lainnya; dan
(iii) Perusahaan baik milik negara maupun swasta dalam koperasi karyawan.
Pertumbuhan koperasi di Indonesia sendiri mengalami pasang surut dengan titik berat lingkup kegiatan usaha secara menyeluruh yang berbeda-beda dari waktu ke waktu. Pertumbuhan koperasi Indonesia yang dipelopori Patih Purwokerto R.Aria Wiriatmadja bergerak pada bidang simpan pinjam. Akan tetapi untuk memodali kegiatan tersebut beliau menggunakan uang sendiri dan kas masjid(Djojohadikoesoemo,1940).Setelah beliau tahu hal itu dilarang ,maka uang kas masjid dikembalikan secara utuh .
Kegiatan koperasi simpan pinjam kemudian dikembangkan oleh De Wolf Van Westerrode assisten residen Wilayah Purwokerto di Banyumas.
Setelahnya pada tahun 1908 Budi Oetomo berdiri. Organisasi ini menganjurkan koperasi untuk Rumah Tangga. Begitu pula SDI(Serikat Dagang Islam) yang mengembangkan koperasi untuk kebutuhan sehari hari.
Pada tahun 1918 K.H. Hasyim Asyari mendirikan koperasi bernama Syirkatul Inan(SKN) yang beranggotakan 45 orang. Organisasi bertekad dengan kelahiran koperasi ini sebagai periode “Nahdlatuttijar”.Oleh karena itu maka 2 tahun kemudian dibentuklah “Komisi Koperasi”yang dipimpin oleh DR.J.H Boeke untuk meneliti kebutuhan masyarakat Bumi Putera dalam berkoperasi. Akhirnya DR.J.H Boeke ditunjuk sebagai Kepala Jawatan Koperasi yng pertama. Perkembangan setelah berdirinya Jawatan koperasi tahun 1930,koperasi berkembang sangat pesat
Secara teoritis sumber kekuatan koperasi sebagai badan usaha dalam konteks kehidupan perekonomian, dapat dilihat dari kemampuan untuk menciptakan kekuatan monopoli dengan derajat monopoli tertentu, ini adalah kekuatan semu dan justru dapat menimbulkan kerugian bagi anggota masyarakat di luar koperasi. Sumber kekuatan lain adalah kemampuan memanfaatkan berbagai potensi external yang timbul di sekitar kegiatan ekonomi para anggotanya. Koperasi juga dapat dilihat sebagai wahana koreksi oleh masyarakat pelaku ekonomi, baik produsen maupun konsumen, dalam memecahkan kegagalan pasar dan mengatasi inefisiensi karena ketidaksempurnaan pasar.
Koperasi selain sebagai organisasi ekonomi juga merupakan organisasi pendidikan dan pada awalnya koperasi maju ditopang oleh tingkat pendidikan anggota yang memudahkan lahirnya kesadaran dan tanggung jawab bersama dalam sistem demokrasi dan tumbuhnya kontrol sosial yang menjadi syarat berlangsungnya pengawasan oleh anggota koperasi. Oleh karena itu kemajuan koperasi juga didasari oleh tingkat perkembangan pendidikan dari masyarakat dimana diperlukan koperasi. Pada saat ini masalah pendidikan bukan lagi hambatan karena rata-rata pendidikan penduduk dimana telah meningkat. Bahkan teknologi informasi telah turut mendidik masyarakat, meskipun juga ada dampak negatifnya.
Sampai dengan bulan November 2008, jumlah koperasi di seluruh Indonesia tercatat sebanyak 117.600 unit lebih. Corak koperasi Indonesia adalah koperasi dengan skala sangat kecil. Pengembangan koperasi di Indonesia yang telah digerakan melalui dukungan kuat program pemerintah yang telah dijalankan dalam waktu lama dan tidak mudah ke luar dari kungkungan pengalaman tersebut. Struktur organisasi koperasi Indonesia mirip organisasi pemerintah/lembaga kemasyarakatan yang terstruktur dari primer sampai tingkat nasional. Hal ini telah menunjukkan kurang efektif nya peran organisasi sekunder dalam membantu koperasi primer. Tidak jarang menjadi instrumen eksploitasi sumberdaya dari daerah pengumpulan. Fenomena ini dimasa datang harus diubah karena adanya perubahan orientasi bisnis yang berkembang dengan globalisasi.
“Pendidikan dan peningkatan teknologi menjadi kunci untuk meningkatkan kekuatan koperasi (pengembangan SDM)”.
Dengan adanya peningkatan teknologi tersebut, apalagi di era globlisasi teknologi ini, kegiatan kopersi semakin lebih mudah. Para anggotanya bisa melakukan transaksi secara/via Online dengan bantuan berbagai software yg mendukun kegiatan transaksi itu sendiri. Bukan itu saja, koperasi itu sendiri semakin mudah saja untuk memperluas jaringannya. Dengan begitu Perkembangan koperasi di Indonesia semakin pesat dan menjalar sampai ke pedesaan. Dengan begitu akan tercapai cita-cita Koperasi dan bangsa Indonesia, yakni mensejahterahkan anggota pada khususnya dan mensejahterakan masyarakat pada umumnya
Bangsa Indonesia sendiri telah lama mengenal kekeluargaan dan kegotongroyongan, yang dipraktekkan oleh nenek moyang bangsa Indonesia. Kebiasaan-kebiasaan tersebut, merupakan input untuk Pasal 33 ayat 1 UUD 1945 yang dijadikan dasar/pedoman pelaksanaan Koperasi. Kebiasaan-kebiasaan nenek moyang yang turun-temurun itu dapat dijumpai di berbagai daerah di Indonesia di antaranya adalah Arisan untuk daerah Jawa Tengah dan Jawa Timur, paketan, mitra cai dan ruing mungpulung daerah Jawa Barat, kerja sama pengairan yang terkenal dengan Subak untuk daerah Bali, dan Julo-julo untuk daerah Sumatra Barat merupakan sifat-sifat hubungan sosial, dan menunjukkan usaha atau kegiatan atasdasar kadar kesadaran berpribadi dan kekeluargaan. Bentuk-bentuk ini yang lebih bersifat kekeluargaan, kegotongroyongan, hubungan social, nonprofit dan kerjasama disebut Pra Koperasi. Pelaksanaan yang bersifat pra-koperasi terutama di pedesaan masih dijumpai, meskipun arus globlisasi terus merambat ke pedesaan.
Adanya kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi pada pertengahan abad ke-18 telah mengubah wajah dunia. Berbagai penemuan di bidang teknologi ( revolusi industri ) melahirkan tata dunia ekonomi baru. Tatanan dunia ekonomi menjajdi terpusat pada keuntungan perseorangan, yaitu kaum pemilik modal ( kapitalisme ). Sistem ekonomi kapitalis / liberal memberikan keuntungan yang sebesar-besarnya kepada pemilik modal dan melahirkan kemelaratan dan kemiskinan bagi masyarakat ekonomi lemah.
Dalam kemiskinan dan kemelaratan ini, muncul kesadaran masyarakat untuk memperbaiki nasibnya sendiri dengan mendirikan koperasi. Pada tahun 1844 lahirlah koperasi pertama di Inggris yang terkenal dengan nama Koperasi Rochdale di bawah pimpinan Charles Howart. Di Jerman, Frederich Willhelm Raiffeisen dan Hermann Schulze memelopori Koperasi Simpan Pinjam. Di Perancis, muncul tokoh-tokoh kperasi seperti Charles Fourier, Louis Blance, dan Ferdinand Lassalle. Demikian pula di Denmark. Denmark menjadi Negara yang paling berhasil di dunia dalam mengembangkan ekonominya melalui koperasi. Kemajuan industri di Eropa akhirnya meluas ke Negara-negara lain, termasuk Indonesia.
Sejarah kelahiran dan berkembangnya koperasi di negara maju (barat) dan negara berkembang memang sangat diametral. Di barat sendiri koperasi lahir sebagai gerakan untuk melawan ketidakadilan pasar, oleh karena itu tumbuh dan berkembang dalam suasana persaingan pasar. Sedangkan di negara berkembang koperasi dirasa perlu dihadirkan dalam kerangka membangun institusi yang dapat menjadi mitra negara dalam menggerakkan pembangunan untuk mencapai kesejahteraan masyarakat. Oleh karena itu kesadaran antara kesamaan dan kemuliaan tujuan negara dan gerakan koperasi, maka berbagai peraturan perundangan yang mengatur koperasi dilahirkan dengan maksud mempercepat pengenalan koperasi dan memberikan arah bagi pengembangan koperasi serta dukungan/perlindungan yang diperlukan.
Di Indonesia pengenalan koperasi memang dilakukan oleh dorongan pemerintah, bahkan sejak pemerintahan penjajahan Belanda telah mulai diperkenalkan. Gerakan koperasi sendiri mendeklarasikan sebagai suatu gerakan sudah dimulai sejak tanggal 12 Juli 1947 melalui Kongres Koperasi di Tasikmalaya. Pengalaman di tanah air kita lebih unik karena koperasi yang pernah lahir dan telah tumbuh secara alami di jaman penjajahan, kemudian setelah kemerdekaan diperbaharui dan diberikan kedudukan yang sangat tinggi dalam penjelasan undang-undang dasar. Dan atas dasar itulah kemudian melahirkan berbagai penafsiran bagaimana harus mengembangkan koperasi. Paling tidak dengan dasar yang kuat tersebut sejarah perkembangan koperasi di Indonesia telah mencatat tiga pola pengembangan koperasi. Ciri utama perkembangan koperasi di Indonesia adalah dengan pola penitipan kepada program yaitu :
(i) Program pembangunan secara sektoral seperti koperasi pertanian, koperasi desa, KUD;
(ii) Lembaga-lembaga pemerintah dalam koperasi pegawai negeri dan koperasi fungsional lainnya; dan
(iii) Perusahaan baik milik negara maupun swasta dalam koperasi karyawan.
Pertumbuhan koperasi di Indonesia sendiri mengalami pasang surut dengan titik berat lingkup kegiatan usaha secara menyeluruh yang berbeda-beda dari waktu ke waktu. Pertumbuhan koperasi Indonesia yang dipelopori Patih Purwokerto R.Aria Wiriatmadja bergerak pada bidang simpan pinjam. Akan tetapi untuk memodali kegiatan tersebut beliau menggunakan uang sendiri dan kas masjid(Djojohadikoesoemo,1940).Setelah beliau tahu hal itu dilarang ,maka uang kas masjid dikembalikan secara utuh .
Kegiatan koperasi simpan pinjam kemudian dikembangkan oleh De Wolf Van Westerrode assisten residen Wilayah Purwokerto di Banyumas.
Setelahnya pada tahun 1908 Budi Oetomo berdiri. Organisasi ini menganjurkan koperasi untuk Rumah Tangga. Begitu pula SDI(Serikat Dagang Islam) yang mengembangkan koperasi untuk kebutuhan sehari hari.
Pada tahun 1918 K.H. Hasyim Asyari mendirikan koperasi bernama Syirkatul Inan(SKN) yang beranggotakan 45 orang. Organisasi bertekad dengan kelahiran koperasi ini sebagai periode “Nahdlatuttijar”.Oleh karena itu maka 2 tahun kemudian dibentuklah “Komisi Koperasi”yang dipimpin oleh DR.J.H Boeke untuk meneliti kebutuhan masyarakat Bumi Putera dalam berkoperasi. Akhirnya DR.J.H Boeke ditunjuk sebagai Kepala Jawatan Koperasi yng pertama. Perkembangan setelah berdirinya Jawatan koperasi tahun 1930,koperasi berkembang sangat pesat
Secara teoritis sumber kekuatan koperasi sebagai badan usaha dalam konteks kehidupan perekonomian, dapat dilihat dari kemampuan untuk menciptakan kekuatan monopoli dengan derajat monopoli tertentu, ini adalah kekuatan semu dan justru dapat menimbulkan kerugian bagi anggota masyarakat di luar koperasi. Sumber kekuatan lain adalah kemampuan memanfaatkan berbagai potensi external yang timbul di sekitar kegiatan ekonomi para anggotanya. Koperasi juga dapat dilihat sebagai wahana koreksi oleh masyarakat pelaku ekonomi, baik produsen maupun konsumen, dalam memecahkan kegagalan pasar dan mengatasi inefisiensi karena ketidaksempurnaan pasar.
Koperasi selain sebagai organisasi ekonomi juga merupakan organisasi pendidikan dan pada awalnya koperasi maju ditopang oleh tingkat pendidikan anggota yang memudahkan lahirnya kesadaran dan tanggung jawab bersama dalam sistem demokrasi dan tumbuhnya kontrol sosial yang menjadi syarat berlangsungnya pengawasan oleh anggota koperasi. Oleh karena itu kemajuan koperasi juga didasari oleh tingkat perkembangan pendidikan dari masyarakat dimana diperlukan koperasi. Pada saat ini masalah pendidikan bukan lagi hambatan karena rata-rata pendidikan penduduk dimana telah meningkat. Bahkan teknologi informasi telah turut mendidik masyarakat, meskipun juga ada dampak negatifnya.
Sampai dengan bulan November 2008, jumlah koperasi di seluruh Indonesia tercatat sebanyak 117.600 unit lebih. Corak koperasi Indonesia adalah koperasi dengan skala sangat kecil. Pengembangan koperasi di Indonesia yang telah digerakan melalui dukungan kuat program pemerintah yang telah dijalankan dalam waktu lama dan tidak mudah ke luar dari kungkungan pengalaman tersebut. Struktur organisasi koperasi Indonesia mirip organisasi pemerintah/lembaga kemasyarakatan yang terstruktur dari primer sampai tingkat nasional. Hal ini telah menunjukkan kurang efektif nya peran organisasi sekunder dalam membantu koperasi primer. Tidak jarang menjadi instrumen eksploitasi sumberdaya dari daerah pengumpulan. Fenomena ini dimasa datang harus diubah karena adanya perubahan orientasi bisnis yang berkembang dengan globalisasi.
“Pendidikan dan peningkatan teknologi menjadi kunci untuk meningkatkan kekuatan koperasi (pengembangan SDM)”.
Dengan adanya peningkatan teknologi tersebut, apalagi di era globlisasi teknologi ini, kegiatan kopersi semakin lebih mudah. Para anggotanya bisa melakukan transaksi secara/via Online dengan bantuan berbagai software yg mendukun kegiatan transaksi itu sendiri. Bukan itu saja, koperasi itu sendiri semakin mudah saja untuk memperluas jaringannya. Dengan begitu Perkembangan koperasi di Indonesia semakin pesat dan menjalar sampai ke pedesaan. Dengan begitu akan tercapai cita-cita Koperasi dan bangsa Indonesia, yakni mensejahterahkan anggota pada khususnya dan mensejahterakan masyarakat pada umumnya
Pengertian koperasi menurut UUD no 25 tahun 1992
Koperasi adalah Badan usaha yang beranggotakan orang seorang atau badan hukum koperasi dengan melandaskan kegiatannya berdasarkan prinsip koperasi sekaligus sebagai gerakan ekonomi rakyat yang beradasarkan atas dasar asas kekeluargaan.
Itulah beberapa pengertian mengenai Koperasi, yang sudah menjelaskan pengertian pengertian koperasi dari berbagai sisi. Namun jika hanya sebatas pengertian tidak akan cukup untuk lebih mengenal koperasi, maka akan dicoba menjelaskan selanjutnya mengenai hal hal apa saja yang ada di dalam manajemen koperasi.
2.1 Kurangnya pemahaman anggota/masyarakat terhadap koperasi dan Lebih Mengenal Koperasi…
APA KOPERASI ITU ?
Koperasi adalah Asosiasi orang orang yang bergabung dan melakukan usaha bersama atas dasar prinsip prinsip koperasi, sehingga mendapatkan manfaat yang lebih besar dengan biaya rendah melalui perusahaan yang dimiliki dan diawasi secara demokratis oleh anggotanya. Asosiasi berbeda dengan kelompok, asosiasi terdiri dari orang orang yang memiliki kepentingan yang sama, lazimnya yang menonjol adalah kepentingan ekonomi.
Tujuan koperasi yaitu menjadikan kondisi sosial dan ekonomi anggotanya lebih baik dibanding sebelum bergabung dengan koperasi.
APA PRINSIP KOPERASI ?
(UU No. 25 tahun 1992 tentang perkoperasian indonesia)
1.
1. Keanggotaanya sukarela dan terbuka. Yang keanggotaanya bersifat sukarela terbuka bagi semua orang yang bersedia mengunakan jasa jasanya, dan bersedia menerima tanggung jawab keanggotaan tanpa membedakan gender.
2. Pengawasan oleh anggota secara Demokratis. Anggota yang secara aktif menetapkan kebijakan dan membuat keputusan. Laki laki dan perempuan yang dipilih sebagai pengurus atau pengawas bertanggung jawab kepada rapat anggota. Dalam koperasi primer, anggota memiliki hak suara yang sama (satu anggota satu suara). Pada tingkatan lain koperasi juga dikelola secara demokratis.
3. Partisipasi anggota dalam kegiatan ekonomi. Anggota menyetorkan modal mereka secara adil dan melakukan pengawasan secara demokratis. Sebagian dari modal tersebut adalah milik bersama. Bila ada balas jasa terhadap modal diberikan secara terbatas. Anggota mengalokasikan SHU untuk beberapa atau semua tujuan seperti di bawah ini :
- mengembangkan koperasi. Caranya dengan membentuk dana cadangan, yang sebagian dari dana itu tidak dapat dibagikan.
- Dibagikan kepada anggota. Caranya seimbang berdasarkan trnsaksi mereka dengan koperasi.
- Mendukung kegiatan lainnya yang disepakati dalam rapat anggota.
1.
1. Otonomi dan kemandirian. Koperasi adalah organisasi yang otonom dan mandiri yang di awasi oleh anggotanya. Dalam setiap perjanjian dengan pihak luar ataupun dalam, syaratnya harus tetap menjamin adanya upaya pengawasan demokratis dari anggota dan tetap mempertahankan otonomi koperasi.
2. Pendidikan, Pelatihan, dan Informasi. Tujuanya adalah agar mereka dapat melaksanakan tugas dengan lebih efektif bagi perkembangan koperasi. Koperasi memberikan informasi kepada masyarakat umum, mengenai hakekat dan manfaat berkoperasi.
3. Kerja sama antar koperasi. Dengan bekerja sama secara lokal, nasional, regional dan internasional maka gerakan koperasi dapat melayani anggotanya dengan efektif serat dapat memperkuat gerakan koperasi.
4. Kepedulian terhadap masyarakat. Koperasi melakukan kegiatan untuk pengembangan masyarakat sekitarnya secara berkelanjutan melalui kebikjakan yang diputuskan oleh rapat anggota.
Itulah beberapa pengertian mengenai Koperasi, yang sudah menjelaskan pengertian pengertian koperasi dari berbagai sisi. Namun jika hanya sebatas pengertian tidak akan cukup untuk lebih mengenal koperasi, maka akan dicoba menjelaskan selanjutnya mengenai hal hal apa saja yang ada di dalam manajemen koperasi.
2.1 Kurangnya pemahaman anggota/masyarakat terhadap koperasi dan Lebih Mengenal Koperasi…
APA KOPERASI ITU ?
Koperasi adalah Asosiasi orang orang yang bergabung dan melakukan usaha bersama atas dasar prinsip prinsip koperasi, sehingga mendapatkan manfaat yang lebih besar dengan biaya rendah melalui perusahaan yang dimiliki dan diawasi secara demokratis oleh anggotanya. Asosiasi berbeda dengan kelompok, asosiasi terdiri dari orang orang yang memiliki kepentingan yang sama, lazimnya yang menonjol adalah kepentingan ekonomi.
Tujuan koperasi yaitu menjadikan kondisi sosial dan ekonomi anggotanya lebih baik dibanding sebelum bergabung dengan koperasi.
APA PRINSIP KOPERASI ?
(UU No. 25 tahun 1992 tentang perkoperasian indonesia)
1.
1. Keanggotaanya sukarela dan terbuka. Yang keanggotaanya bersifat sukarela terbuka bagi semua orang yang bersedia mengunakan jasa jasanya, dan bersedia menerima tanggung jawab keanggotaan tanpa membedakan gender.
2. Pengawasan oleh anggota secara Demokratis. Anggota yang secara aktif menetapkan kebijakan dan membuat keputusan. Laki laki dan perempuan yang dipilih sebagai pengurus atau pengawas bertanggung jawab kepada rapat anggota. Dalam koperasi primer, anggota memiliki hak suara yang sama (satu anggota satu suara). Pada tingkatan lain koperasi juga dikelola secara demokratis.
3. Partisipasi anggota dalam kegiatan ekonomi. Anggota menyetorkan modal mereka secara adil dan melakukan pengawasan secara demokratis. Sebagian dari modal tersebut adalah milik bersama. Bila ada balas jasa terhadap modal diberikan secara terbatas. Anggota mengalokasikan SHU untuk beberapa atau semua tujuan seperti di bawah ini :
- mengembangkan koperasi. Caranya dengan membentuk dana cadangan, yang sebagian dari dana itu tidak dapat dibagikan.
- Dibagikan kepada anggota. Caranya seimbang berdasarkan trnsaksi mereka dengan koperasi.
- Mendukung kegiatan lainnya yang disepakati dalam rapat anggota.
1.
1. Otonomi dan kemandirian. Koperasi adalah organisasi yang otonom dan mandiri yang di awasi oleh anggotanya. Dalam setiap perjanjian dengan pihak luar ataupun dalam, syaratnya harus tetap menjamin adanya upaya pengawasan demokratis dari anggota dan tetap mempertahankan otonomi koperasi.
2. Pendidikan, Pelatihan, dan Informasi. Tujuanya adalah agar mereka dapat melaksanakan tugas dengan lebih efektif bagi perkembangan koperasi. Koperasi memberikan informasi kepada masyarakat umum, mengenai hakekat dan manfaat berkoperasi.
3. Kerja sama antar koperasi. Dengan bekerja sama secara lokal, nasional, regional dan internasional maka gerakan koperasi dapat melayani anggotanya dengan efektif serat dapat memperkuat gerakan koperasi.
4. Kepedulian terhadap masyarakat. Koperasi melakukan kegiatan untuk pengembangan masyarakat sekitarnya secara berkelanjutan melalui kebikjakan yang diputuskan oleh rapat anggota.
Jumat, 16 April 2010
Helping and Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Helping and
Modal Auxiliary
Verbs
Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs such as will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need are used in conjunction with main verbs to express shades of time and mood. The combination of helping verbs with main verbs creates what are called verb phrases or verb strings. In the following sentence, "will have been" are helping or auxiliary verbs and "studying" is the main verb; the whole verb string is underlined:
As of next August, I will have been studying chemistry for ten years.
Students should remember that adverbs and contracted forms are not, technically, part of the verb. In the sentence, "He has already started." the adverb already modifies the verb, but it is not really part of the verb. The same is true of the 'nt in "He hasn't started yet" (the adverb not, represented by the contracted n't, is not part of the verb, has started).
Shall, will and forms of have, do and be combine with main verbs to indicate time and voice. As auxiliaries, the verbs be, have and do can change form to indicate changes in subject and time.
I shall go now.
He had won the election.
They did write that novel together.
I am going now.
He was winning the election.
They have been writing that novel for a long time.
Uses of Shall and Will and Should
In England, shall is used to express the simple future for first person I and we, as in "Shall we meet by the river?" Will would be used in the simple future for all other persons. Using will in the first person would express determination on the part of the speaker, as in "We will finish this project by tonight, by golly!" Using shall in second and third persons would indicate some kind of promise about the subject, as in "This shall be revealed to you in good time." This usage is certainly acceptable in the U.S., although shall is used far less frequently. The distinction between the two is often obscured by the contraction 'll, which is the same for both verbs.
In the United States, we seldom use shall for anything other than polite questions (suggesting an element of permission) in the first-person:
"Shall we go now?"
"Shall I call a doctor for you?"
(In the second sentence, many writers would use should instead, although should is somewhat more tentative than shall.) In the U.S., to express the future tense, the verb will is used in all other cases.
Shall is often used in formal situations (legal or legalistic documents, minutes to meetings, etc.) to express obligation, even with third-person and second-person constructions:
The board of directors shall be responsible for payment to stockholders.
The college president shall report financial shortfalls to the executive director each semester."
Should is usually replaced, nowadays, by would. It is still used, however, to mean "ought to" as in
You really shouldn't do that.
If you think that was amazing, you should have seen it last night.
In British English and very formal American English, one is apt to hear or read should with the first-person pronouns in expressions of liking such as "I should prefer iced tea" and in tentative expressions of opinion such as
I should imagine they'll vote Conservative.
I should have thought so.
(The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996. Used with the permission of Oxford University Press. Examples our own.)
Uses of Do, Does and Did
In the simple present tense, do will function as an auxiliary to express the negative and to ask questions. (Does, however, is substituted for third-person, singular subjects in the present tense. The past tense did works with all persons, singular and plural.)
I don't study at night.
She doesn't work here anymore.
Do you attend this school?
Does he work here?
These verbs also work as "short answers," with the main verb omitted.
Does she work here? No, she doesn't work here.
With "yes-no" questions, the form of do goes in front of the subject and the main verb comes after the subject:
Did your grandmother know Truman?
Do wildflowers grow in your back yard?
Forms of do are useful in expressing similarity and differences in conjunction with so and neither.
My wife hates spinach and so does my son.
My wife doesn't like spinach; neither do I.
Do is also helpful because it means you don't have to repeat the verb:
Larry excelled in language studies; so did his brother.
Raoul studies as hard as his sister does.
The so-called emphatic do has many uses in English.
a.To add emphasis to an entire sentence: "He does like spinach. He really does!"
b.To add emphasis to an imperative: "Do come in." (actually softens the command)
c.To add emphasis to a frequency adverb: "He never did understand his father." "She always does manage to hurt her mother's feelings."
d.To contradict a negative statement: "You didn't do your homework, did you?" "Oh, but I did finish it."
e.To ask a clarifying question about a previous negative statement: "Ridwell didn't take the tools." "Then who did take the tools?"
f.To indicate a strong concession: "Although the Clintons denied any wrong-doing, they did return some of the gifts."
In the absence of other modal auxiliaries, a form of do is used in question and negative constructions known as the get passive:
Did Rinaldo get selected by the committee?
The audience didn't get riled up by the politician.
Based on descriptions in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own.
Uses of Have, Has and Had
Forms of the verb to have are used to create tenses known as the present perfect and past perfect. The perfect tenses indicate that something has happened in the past; the present perfect indicating that something happened and might be continuing to happen, the past perfect indicating that something happened prior to something else happening. (That sounds worse than it really is!) See the section on Verb Tenses in the Active Voice for further explanation; also review material in the Directory of English Tenses.
To have is also in combination with other modal verbs to express probability and possibility in the past.
As an affirmative statement, to have can express how certain you are that something happened (when combined with an appropriate modal + have + a past participle): "Georgia must have left already." "Clinton might have known about the gifts." "They may have voted already."
As a negative statement, a modal is combined with not + have + a past participle to express how certain you are that something did not happen: "Clinton might not have known about the gifts." "I may not have been there at the time of the crime."
To ask about possibility or probability in the past, a modal is combined with the subject + have + past participle: "Could Clinton have known about the gifts?"
For short answers, a modal is combined with have: "Did Clinton know about this?" "I don't know. He may have." "The evidence is pretty positive. He must have."
To have (sometimes combined with to get) is used to express a logical inference:
It's been raining all week; the basement has to be flooded by now.
He hit his head on the doorway. He has got to be over seven feet tall!
Have is often combined with an infinitive to form an auxiliary whose meaning is similar to "must."
I have to have a car like that!
She has to pay her own tuition at college.
He has to have been the first student to try that.
Based on the analysis in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own.
Modal Auxiliaries
Other helping verbs, called modal auxiliaries or modals, such as can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, and would, do not change form for different subjects. For instance, try substituting any of these modal auxiliaries for can with any of the subjects listed below.
I
you (singular)
he
we
you (plural)
they
can write well.
There is also a separate section on the Modal Auxiliaries, which divides these verbs into their various meanings of necessity, advice, ability, expectation, permission, possibility, etc., and provides sample sentences in various tenses. See the section on Conditional Verb Forms for help with the modal auxiliary would. The shades of meaning among modal auxiliaries are multifarious and complex. Most English-as-a-Second-Language textbooks will contain at least one chapter on their usage. For more advanced students, A University Grammar of English, by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum, contains an excellent, extensive analysis of modal auxiliaries.
The analysis of Modal Auxiliaries is based on a similar analysis in The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers by Maxine Hairston and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 4th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1996. The description of helping verbs on this page is based on The Little, Brown Handbook by H. Ramsay Fowler and Jane E. Aaron, & Kay Limburg. 6th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1995. By permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. Examples in all cases are our own.
Uses of Can and Could
The modal auxiliary can is used
to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something or knowing how to do something):
He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.
to expression permission (in the sense of being allowed or permitted to do something):
Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is less formal than may. Also, some writers will object to the use of can in this context.)
to express theoretical possibility:
American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there's a profit in it.
The modal auxiliary could is used
to express an ability in the past:
I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
to express past or future permission:
Could I bury my cat in your back yard?
to express present possibility:
We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.
to express possibility or ability in contingent circumstances:
If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
In expressing ability, can and could frequently also imply willingness: Can you help me with my homework?
Can versus May
Whether the auxiliary verb can can be used to express permission or not — "Can I leave the room now?" ["I don't know if you can, but you may."] — depends on the level of formality of your text or situation. As Theodore Bernstein puts it in The Careful Writer, "a writer who is attentive to the proprieties will preserve the traditional distinction: can for ability or power to do something, may for permission to do it.
The question is at what level can you safely ignore the "proprieties." Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, tenth edition, says the battle is over and can can be used in virtually any situation to express or ask for permission. Most authorities, however, recommend a stricter adherence to the distinction, at least in formal situations.
Authority: The Careful Writer by Theodore Bernstein. The Free Press: New York. 1998. p. 87.
Uses of May and Might
Two of the more troublesome modal auxiliaries are may and might. When used in the context of granting or seeking permission, might is the past tense of may. Might is considerably more tentative than may.
May I leave class early?
If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave early?
In the context of expressing possibility, may and might are interchangeable present and future forms and might + have + past participle is the past form:
She might be my advisor next semester.
She may be my advisor next semester.
She might have advised me not to take biology.
Avoid confusing the sense of possibility in may with the implication of might, that a hypothetical situation has not in fact occurred. For instance, let's say there's been a helicopter crash at the airport. In his initial report, before all the facts are gathered, a newscaster could say that the pilot "may have been injured." After we discover that the pilot is in fact all right, the newscaster can now say that the pilot "might have been injured" because it is a hypothetical situation that has not occurred. Another example: a body had been identified after much work by a detective. It was reported that "without this painstaking work, the body may have remained unidentified." Since the body was, in fact, identified, might is clearly called for.
Uses of Will and Would
In certain contexts, will and would are virtually interchangeable, but there are differences. Notice that the contracted form 'll is very frequently used for will.
Will can be used to express willingness:
I'll wash the dishes if you dry.
We're going to the movies. Will you join us?
It can also express intention (especially in the first person):
I'll do my exercises later on.
and prediction:
specific: The meeting will be over soon.
timeless: Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
habitual: The river will overflow its banks every spring.
Would can also be used to express willingness:
Would you please take off your hat?
It can also express insistence (rather rare, and with a strong stress on the word "would"):
Now you've ruined everything. You would act that way.
and characteristic activity:
customary: After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.
typical (casual): She would cause the whole family to be late, every time.
In a main clause, would can express a hypothetical meaning:
My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she wants.
Finally, would can express a sense of probability:
I hear a whistle. That would be the five o'clock train.
Uses of Used to
The auxiliary verb construction used to is used to express an action that took place in the past, perhaps customarily, but now that action no longer customarily takes place:
We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.
The spelling of this verb is a problem for some people because the "-ed" ending quite naturally disappears in speaking: "We yoostoo take long trips." But it ought not to disappear in writing. There are exceptions, though. When the auxiliary is combined with another auxiliary, did, the past tense is carried by the new auxiliary and the "-ed" ending is dropped. This will often happen in the interrogative:
Didn't you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
It didn't use to be that way.
Used to can also be used to convey the sense of being accustomed to or familiar with something:
The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we're used to it by now.
I like these old sneakers; I'm used to them.
Used to is best reserved for colloquial usage; it has no place in formal or academic text.
Modal Auxiliary
Verbs
Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs such as will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need are used in conjunction with main verbs to express shades of time and mood. The combination of helping verbs with main verbs creates what are called verb phrases or verb strings. In the following sentence, "will have been" are helping or auxiliary verbs and "studying" is the main verb; the whole verb string is underlined:
As of next August, I will have been studying chemistry for ten years.
Students should remember that adverbs and contracted forms are not, technically, part of the verb. In the sentence, "He has already started." the adverb already modifies the verb, but it is not really part of the verb. The same is true of the 'nt in "He hasn't started yet" (the adverb not, represented by the contracted n't, is not part of the verb, has started).
Shall, will and forms of have, do and be combine with main verbs to indicate time and voice. As auxiliaries, the verbs be, have and do can change form to indicate changes in subject and time.
I shall go now.
He had won the election.
They did write that novel together.
I am going now.
He was winning the election.
They have been writing that novel for a long time.
Uses of Shall and Will and Should
In England, shall is used to express the simple future for first person I and we, as in "Shall we meet by the river?" Will would be used in the simple future for all other persons. Using will in the first person would express determination on the part of the speaker, as in "We will finish this project by tonight, by golly!" Using shall in second and third persons would indicate some kind of promise about the subject, as in "This shall be revealed to you in good time." This usage is certainly acceptable in the U.S., although shall is used far less frequently. The distinction between the two is often obscured by the contraction 'll, which is the same for both verbs.
In the United States, we seldom use shall for anything other than polite questions (suggesting an element of permission) in the first-person:
"Shall we go now?"
"Shall I call a doctor for you?"
(In the second sentence, many writers would use should instead, although should is somewhat more tentative than shall.) In the U.S., to express the future tense, the verb will is used in all other cases.
Shall is often used in formal situations (legal or legalistic documents, minutes to meetings, etc.) to express obligation, even with third-person and second-person constructions:
The board of directors shall be responsible for payment to stockholders.
The college president shall report financial shortfalls to the executive director each semester."
Should is usually replaced, nowadays, by would. It is still used, however, to mean "ought to" as in
You really shouldn't do that.
If you think that was amazing, you should have seen it last night.
In British English and very formal American English, one is apt to hear or read should with the first-person pronouns in expressions of liking such as "I should prefer iced tea" and in tentative expressions of opinion such as
I should imagine they'll vote Conservative.
I should have thought so.
(The New Fowler's Modern English Usage edited by R.W. Burchfield. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 1996. Used with the permission of Oxford University Press. Examples our own.)
Uses of Do, Does and Did
In the simple present tense, do will function as an auxiliary to express the negative and to ask questions. (Does, however, is substituted for third-person, singular subjects in the present tense. The past tense did works with all persons, singular and plural.)
I don't study at night.
She doesn't work here anymore.
Do you attend this school?
Does he work here?
These verbs also work as "short answers," with the main verb omitted.
Does she work here? No, she doesn't work here.
With "yes-no" questions, the form of do goes in front of the subject and the main verb comes after the subject:
Did your grandmother know Truman?
Do wildflowers grow in your back yard?
Forms of do are useful in expressing similarity and differences in conjunction with so and neither.
My wife hates spinach and so does my son.
My wife doesn't like spinach; neither do I.
Do is also helpful because it means you don't have to repeat the verb:
Larry excelled in language studies; so did his brother.
Raoul studies as hard as his sister does.
The so-called emphatic do has many uses in English.
a.To add emphasis to an entire sentence: "He does like spinach. He really does!"
b.To add emphasis to an imperative: "Do come in." (actually softens the command)
c.To add emphasis to a frequency adverb: "He never did understand his father." "She always does manage to hurt her mother's feelings."
d.To contradict a negative statement: "You didn't do your homework, did you?" "Oh, but I did finish it."
e.To ask a clarifying question about a previous negative statement: "Ridwell didn't take the tools." "Then who did take the tools?"
f.To indicate a strong concession: "Although the Clintons denied any wrong-doing, they did return some of the gifts."
In the absence of other modal auxiliaries, a form of do is used in question and negative constructions known as the get passive:
Did Rinaldo get selected by the committee?
The audience didn't get riled up by the politician.
Based on descriptions in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own.
Uses of Have, Has and Had
Forms of the verb to have are used to create tenses known as the present perfect and past perfect. The perfect tenses indicate that something has happened in the past; the present perfect indicating that something happened and might be continuing to happen, the past perfect indicating that something happened prior to something else happening. (That sounds worse than it really is!) See the section on Verb Tenses in the Active Voice for further explanation; also review material in the Directory of English Tenses.
To have is also in combination with other modal verbs to express probability and possibility in the past.
As an affirmative statement, to have can express how certain you are that something happened (when combined with an appropriate modal + have + a past participle): "Georgia must have left already." "Clinton might have known about the gifts." "They may have voted already."
As a negative statement, a modal is combined with not + have + a past participle to express how certain you are that something did not happen: "Clinton might not have known about the gifts." "I may not have been there at the time of the crime."
To ask about possibility or probability in the past, a modal is combined with the subject + have + past participle: "Could Clinton have known about the gifts?"
For short answers, a modal is combined with have: "Did Clinton know about this?" "I don't know. He may have." "The evidence is pretty positive. He must have."
To have (sometimes combined with to get) is used to express a logical inference:
It's been raining all week; the basement has to be flooded by now.
He hit his head on the doorway. He has got to be over seven feet tall!
Have is often combined with an infinitive to form an auxiliary whose meaning is similar to "must."
I have to have a car like that!
She has to pay her own tuition at college.
He has to have been the first student to try that.
Based on the analysis in Grammar Dimensions: Form, Meaning, and Use 2nd Ed. by Jan Frodesen and Janet Eyring. Heinle & Heinle: Boston. 1997. Examples our own.
Modal Auxiliaries
Other helping verbs, called modal auxiliaries or modals, such as can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, and would, do not change form for different subjects. For instance, try substituting any of these modal auxiliaries for can with any of the subjects listed below.
I
you (singular)
he
we
you (plural)
they
can write well.
There is also a separate section on the Modal Auxiliaries, which divides these verbs into their various meanings of necessity, advice, ability, expectation, permission, possibility, etc., and provides sample sentences in various tenses. See the section on Conditional Verb Forms for help with the modal auxiliary would. The shades of meaning among modal auxiliaries are multifarious and complex. Most English-as-a-Second-Language textbooks will contain at least one chapter on their usage. For more advanced students, A University Grammar of English, by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum, contains an excellent, extensive analysis of modal auxiliaries.
The analysis of Modal Auxiliaries is based on a similar analysis in The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers by Maxine Hairston and John J. Ruszkiewicz. 4th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1996. The description of helping verbs on this page is based on The Little, Brown Handbook by H. Ramsay Fowler and Jane E. Aaron, & Kay Limburg. 6th ed. HarperCollins: New York. 1995. By permission of Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. Examples in all cases are our own.
Uses of Can and Could
The modal auxiliary can is used
to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something or knowing how to do something):
He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.
to expression permission (in the sense of being allowed or permitted to do something):
Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is less formal than may. Also, some writers will object to the use of can in this context.)
to express theoretical possibility:
American automobile makers can make better cars if they think there's a profit in it.
The modal auxiliary could is used
to express an ability in the past:
I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
to express past or future permission:
Could I bury my cat in your back yard?
to express present possibility:
We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.
to express possibility or ability in contingent circumstances:
If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
In expressing ability, can and could frequently also imply willingness: Can you help me with my homework?
Can versus May
Whether the auxiliary verb can can be used to express permission or not — "Can I leave the room now?" ["I don't know if you can, but you may."] — depends on the level of formality of your text or situation. As Theodore Bernstein puts it in The Careful Writer, "a writer who is attentive to the proprieties will preserve the traditional distinction: can for ability or power to do something, may for permission to do it.
The question is at what level can you safely ignore the "proprieties." Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, tenth edition, says the battle is over and can can be used in virtually any situation to express or ask for permission. Most authorities, however, recommend a stricter adherence to the distinction, at least in formal situations.
Authority: The Careful Writer by Theodore Bernstein. The Free Press: New York. 1998. p. 87.
Uses of May and Might
Two of the more troublesome modal auxiliaries are may and might. When used in the context of granting or seeking permission, might is the past tense of may. Might is considerably more tentative than may.
May I leave class early?
If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave early?
In the context of expressing possibility, may and might are interchangeable present and future forms and might + have + past participle is the past form:
She might be my advisor next semester.
She may be my advisor next semester.
She might have advised me not to take biology.
Avoid confusing the sense of possibility in may with the implication of might, that a hypothetical situation has not in fact occurred. For instance, let's say there's been a helicopter crash at the airport. In his initial report, before all the facts are gathered, a newscaster could say that the pilot "may have been injured." After we discover that the pilot is in fact all right, the newscaster can now say that the pilot "might have been injured" because it is a hypothetical situation that has not occurred. Another example: a body had been identified after much work by a detective. It was reported that "without this painstaking work, the body may have remained unidentified." Since the body was, in fact, identified, might is clearly called for.
Uses of Will and Would
In certain contexts, will and would are virtually interchangeable, but there are differences. Notice that the contracted form 'll is very frequently used for will.
Will can be used to express willingness:
I'll wash the dishes if you dry.
We're going to the movies. Will you join us?
It can also express intention (especially in the first person):
I'll do my exercises later on.
and prediction:
specific: The meeting will be over soon.
timeless: Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
habitual: The river will overflow its banks every spring.
Would can also be used to express willingness:
Would you please take off your hat?
It can also express insistence (rather rare, and with a strong stress on the word "would"):
Now you've ruined everything. You would act that way.
and characteristic activity:
customary: After work, he would walk to his home in West Hartford.
typical (casual): She would cause the whole family to be late, every time.
In a main clause, would can express a hypothetical meaning:
My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she wants.
Finally, would can express a sense of probability:
I hear a whistle. That would be the five o'clock train.
Uses of Used to
The auxiliary verb construction used to is used to express an action that took place in the past, perhaps customarily, but now that action no longer customarily takes place:
We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.
The spelling of this verb is a problem for some people because the "-ed" ending quite naturally disappears in speaking: "We yoostoo take long trips." But it ought not to disappear in writing. There are exceptions, though. When the auxiliary is combined with another auxiliary, did, the past tense is carried by the new auxiliary and the "-ed" ending is dropped. This will often happen in the interrogative:
Didn't you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
It didn't use to be that way.
Used to can also be used to convey the sense of being accustomed to or familiar with something:
The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we're used to it by now.
I like these old sneakers; I'm used to them.
Used to is best reserved for colloquial usage; it has no place in formal or academic text.
Passive Voice
Passive Voice
April 9, 2008 — ismailworld
Kalimat aktif merupakan kalimat yang subjek kalimatnya adalah pelaku sebuah tindakan, sedangkan kalimat pasif adalah kalimat yang subjeknya bukan pelaku suatu tindakan. Si subjek adalah si penerima akibat dari sebuah tindakan.
Bandingkan kalimat-kalimat berikut:
Aktif : Susi mengetik surat ini kemarin
Pasif : Surat ini diketik oleh Susi kemarin
Aktif : Kucingku membunuh seekor tikus
Pasif : Seekor tikus dibunuh oleh kucingku
Catatan:
1.Gunakan bentuk pasif jika pelaku tindakan tidak begitu penting.
Contoh:
Menara ini dibangun tahun 1955
1.Kalau kita perlu menyebut siapa pelaku suatu tindakan, gunakan kata oleh (by)
Contoh:
Menara ini telah dibangun oleh Pemerintah Daerah pada tahun 1955
Rumus umum untuk membentuk suatu kalimat Pasif
Aktif : S + Verb (Kata Kerja) + Objek + dll
Pasif : Objek + to be + Verb 3 (Kata Kerja Bentuk III) ( + by subjek) + dll
To be yang digunakan
a.Present : is, am, are
b.Past : was, were
c.Perfect : been (di depan have, has, atau had)
d.Future : be (setelah modals)
e.Continuous : being (di depan salah satu dari 7 to be di atas)
Hal-hal yang perlu diketahui dan diingat
1.Untuk menyatakan suatu kalimat dalam bentuk pasif, tenses tidak berubah. Tenses harus sama dengan kalau kita menyatakannya dalam bentuk aktif. Yang berubah hanya kata kerja-nya.
2.Kata kerja yang tidak memiliki objek (Kata Kerja Intransitif) tidak dapat diubah menjadi kalimat pasif, seperti, menangis, mendidih, terbit, dll.
Contoh-contoh kalimat aktif dan pasif
a.Jack sings a song (active)
b.A song is sung by Jack (Passive)
1.Jack sang a song yesterday (active)
2.A song was sung by Jack yesterday (passive)
a.Jack has sung a song (active)
b.A song has been sung by Jack (passive)
1.Jack will sing a song (active)
2.A song will be sung by Jack (passive)
a.Jack is singing a song (active)
b.A song is being sung by Jack (passive)
1.Jack can sing a song (active)
2.A song can be sung by Jack (passive)
Beberapa Bentuk Kalimat Passive
1) Passive Imperative Sentence
Rumus:
Let + objek + be + Kata Kerja Bentuk III
Help the poor (active)
Let the poor be helped (passive)
2) Passive Infinitive: It is/was time
Rumus:
It is/was time for + objek + to be + kata kerja III
It is time to send the letter (active)
It is time for the letter to be sent (passive)
3) Negative Passive Imperative Sentence
Rumus:
Subjek + be + Kata kerja III + not to + infinitive
(kata kerja III yang sering digunakan adalah: advised, asked, begged, commanded, requested)
Don’t wait for me (active)
You are advised not to wait for me (passive)
4) Passive Sentence with Verbs of Perception
Rumus:
Subjek + be + adjectives + when + subjek + be + kata kerja III
(kata kerja yang digunakan adalah: taste, smell, feel)
This food tastes delicious (active)
This food is delicious when it is tasted (passive)
5) Passive Sentence with Certain Verbs followed by “that-clause”
Kata kerja yang digunakan adalah: accept, admit, agree, assume, believe, decide, expect, find out, intend, plan, point out, presume, prove, regret, report, say, think, understand.
We regretted that the principal had to resign from office (active)
It was regretted that the principal had to resign from office (passive)
6) Passive Sentence with Nouns or Adjectives as Complements
I consider her very pretty (active)
She is considered very pretty (passive)
7) Passive Sentence with two objects
He gave me a book (active)
A book was given to me by him (passive 1)
I was given a book by him (passive 2)
Passive Sentence with Gerund Verbs
The teacher enjoyed teaching the students (active)
The students enjoyed being taught by the teacher (passive)
9) Agent consisting long expression at the end of sentence
Dalam kalimat pasif, jika pelaku terdiri dari ekspresi yang panjang, sebaiknya subjek tersebut ditempatkan di akhir kalimat setelah by.
We were all surprised by her sudden announcement to get married
I was confused by his plan to stop the ongoing project and begin a new one.
10) Passive Sentence with unique verbs
Kata kerja yang digunakan adalah: require, deserve, need
This wall needs to be painted (sama dengan)
This wall needs painting.
April 9, 2008 — ismailworld
Kalimat aktif merupakan kalimat yang subjek kalimatnya adalah pelaku sebuah tindakan, sedangkan kalimat pasif adalah kalimat yang subjeknya bukan pelaku suatu tindakan. Si subjek adalah si penerima akibat dari sebuah tindakan.
Bandingkan kalimat-kalimat berikut:
Aktif : Susi mengetik surat ini kemarin
Pasif : Surat ini diketik oleh Susi kemarin
Aktif : Kucingku membunuh seekor tikus
Pasif : Seekor tikus dibunuh oleh kucingku
Catatan:
1.Gunakan bentuk pasif jika pelaku tindakan tidak begitu penting.
Contoh:
Menara ini dibangun tahun 1955
1.Kalau kita perlu menyebut siapa pelaku suatu tindakan, gunakan kata oleh (by)
Contoh:
Menara ini telah dibangun oleh Pemerintah Daerah pada tahun 1955
Rumus umum untuk membentuk suatu kalimat Pasif
Aktif : S + Verb (Kata Kerja) + Objek + dll
Pasif : Objek + to be + Verb 3 (Kata Kerja Bentuk III) ( + by subjek) + dll
To be yang digunakan
a.Present : is, am, are
b.Past : was, were
c.Perfect : been (di depan have, has, atau had)
d.Future : be (setelah modals)
e.Continuous : being (di depan salah satu dari 7 to be di atas)
Hal-hal yang perlu diketahui dan diingat
1.Untuk menyatakan suatu kalimat dalam bentuk pasif, tenses tidak berubah. Tenses harus sama dengan kalau kita menyatakannya dalam bentuk aktif. Yang berubah hanya kata kerja-nya.
2.Kata kerja yang tidak memiliki objek (Kata Kerja Intransitif) tidak dapat diubah menjadi kalimat pasif, seperti, menangis, mendidih, terbit, dll.
Contoh-contoh kalimat aktif dan pasif
a.Jack sings a song (active)
b.A song is sung by Jack (Passive)
1.Jack sang a song yesterday (active)
2.A song was sung by Jack yesterday (passive)
a.Jack has sung a song (active)
b.A song has been sung by Jack (passive)
1.Jack will sing a song (active)
2.A song will be sung by Jack (passive)
a.Jack is singing a song (active)
b.A song is being sung by Jack (passive)
1.Jack can sing a song (active)
2.A song can be sung by Jack (passive)
Beberapa Bentuk Kalimat Passive
1) Passive Imperative Sentence
Rumus:
Let + objek + be + Kata Kerja Bentuk III
Help the poor (active)
Let the poor be helped (passive)
2) Passive Infinitive: It is/was time
Rumus:
It is/was time for + objek + to be + kata kerja III
It is time to send the letter (active)
It is time for the letter to be sent (passive)
3) Negative Passive Imperative Sentence
Rumus:
Subjek + be + Kata kerja III + not to + infinitive
(kata kerja III yang sering digunakan adalah: advised, asked, begged, commanded, requested)
Don’t wait for me (active)
You are advised not to wait for me (passive)
4) Passive Sentence with Verbs of Perception
Rumus:
Subjek + be + adjectives + when + subjek + be + kata kerja III
(kata kerja yang digunakan adalah: taste, smell, feel)
This food tastes delicious (active)
This food is delicious when it is tasted (passive)
5) Passive Sentence with Certain Verbs followed by “that-clause”
Kata kerja yang digunakan adalah: accept, admit, agree, assume, believe, decide, expect, find out, intend, plan, point out, presume, prove, regret, report, say, think, understand.
We regretted that the principal had to resign from office (active)
It was regretted that the principal had to resign from office (passive)
6) Passive Sentence with Nouns or Adjectives as Complements
I consider her very pretty (active)
She is considered very pretty (passive)
7) Passive Sentence with two objects
He gave me a book (active)
A book was given to me by him (passive 1)
I was given a book by him (passive 2)
Passive Sentence with Gerund Verbs
The teacher enjoyed teaching the students (active)
The students enjoyed being taught by the teacher (passive)
9) Agent consisting long expression at the end of sentence
Dalam kalimat pasif, jika pelaku terdiri dari ekspresi yang panjang, sebaiknya subjek tersebut ditempatkan di akhir kalimat setelah by.
We were all surprised by her sudden announcement to get married
I was confused by his plan to stop the ongoing project and begin a new one.
10) Passive Sentence with unique verbs
Kata kerja yang digunakan adalah: require, deserve, need
This wall needs to be painted (sama dengan)
This wall needs painting.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (IF CLAUSE)
By robbymilana
1.Pengertian
Conditional Sentences adalah Kalimat Kemungkinan atau Kalimat Pengandaian. Conditional Sentences biasanya digunakan untuk mengandaikan suatu kejadian atau kondisi yang seharusnya terjadi atau kondisi yang diinginkan. Karena itu kalimat ini selalu menggunakan kata “IF” (jika).
Conditional sentences mempunyai dua clauses, yakni main clause dan dependent clause. Dependent clause adalah kalimat yang dimulai dengan kata “IF” tadi. Perhatikan penggunaan keduanya dalam contoh berikut:
If you study hard, you will pass your exam.
Dependent Clause Main Clause
Present Tense Future Tense
1.Conditional Sentences dalam Bentuk Future
Dalam bentuk Future, dependent clause-nya adalah dalam bentuk Present Tense (kata kerja pertama) dan main clause-nya dalam bentuk Future Tense (gunakan will).
If I have enough money, I will go to Bali
Dependent Clause Main Clause
Pada contoh di atas, dalam dependent clause “have” adalah bentuk Present Tense karena merupakan bentuk pertama. Sementara dala main clause digunakan “will” sebagai penunjuk bahwa kalimat itu merupakan Future Tense. Dan sesuai dengan prinsip Future Tense, setelah “will” harus digunakan kata kerja bentuk pertama (V1). Pada contoh digunakan kata “go” sehingga menjadi “will go”.
Lihat pula contoh berikut:
If she works hard, she will get the raise
Dependent Clause Main Clause
Kata “works” jelas menunjukan ciri khas dari Present, yakni penggunaan tambahan “s” pada kata kerja pertama (work) jika Subject-nya berbentuk tunggal. Sementara “will get” menunjukan ciri dari Future.
1.Conditional Sentences dalam Bentuk Present
Dalam bentuk Present, dependent clause adalah dalam bentuk Past Tense (kata kerja kedua) dan main clause-nya menggunakan modals would, should, could, atau might ditambah kata kerja pertama (V1).
If you studied hard, you would pass your exam
Dependent Clause Main Clause
Kata “studied” pada contoh menunjukan kata kerja kedua dari kata “study” yang merupakan ciri khas dari Past Tense. Semua bentuk Past Tense (kata kerja kedua) digunakan untuk membuat conditional sentences bentuk Present kecuali “to be”. Dalam hal ini semua “to be” yang digunakan hanya “were”, walaupun itu untuk subject tunggal.
If I were you, I would love her very much
Dependent Clause Main Clause
1.Conditional Sentences dalam Bentuk Past
Dalam bentuk Past, dependent clause-nya adalah dalam bentuk Past Perfect Tense (had + V3). Sementara main clause-nya menggunakan would have, should have, could have, dan might have ditambah kata kerja ketiga (V3).
If you had studied, you would have passed your exam
Dependent Clause Main Clause
Pada contoh di atas, kata “had studied” merupakan bentuk Past Perfect (had + V3). Kata “studied” merupakan V3 dari kata “study’.
Possibly related posts: (automatically generated)
By robbymilana
1.Pengertian
Conditional Sentences adalah Kalimat Kemungkinan atau Kalimat Pengandaian. Conditional Sentences biasanya digunakan untuk mengandaikan suatu kejadian atau kondisi yang seharusnya terjadi atau kondisi yang diinginkan. Karena itu kalimat ini selalu menggunakan kata “IF” (jika).
Conditional sentences mempunyai dua clauses, yakni main clause dan dependent clause. Dependent clause adalah kalimat yang dimulai dengan kata “IF” tadi. Perhatikan penggunaan keduanya dalam contoh berikut:
If you study hard, you will pass your exam.
Dependent Clause Main Clause
Present Tense Future Tense
1.Conditional Sentences dalam Bentuk Future
Dalam bentuk Future, dependent clause-nya adalah dalam bentuk Present Tense (kata kerja pertama) dan main clause-nya dalam bentuk Future Tense (gunakan will).
If I have enough money, I will go to Bali
Dependent Clause Main Clause
Pada contoh di atas, dalam dependent clause “have” adalah bentuk Present Tense karena merupakan bentuk pertama. Sementara dala main clause digunakan “will” sebagai penunjuk bahwa kalimat itu merupakan Future Tense. Dan sesuai dengan prinsip Future Tense, setelah “will” harus digunakan kata kerja bentuk pertama (V1). Pada contoh digunakan kata “go” sehingga menjadi “will go”.
Lihat pula contoh berikut:
If she works hard, she will get the raise
Dependent Clause Main Clause
Kata “works” jelas menunjukan ciri khas dari Present, yakni penggunaan tambahan “s” pada kata kerja pertama (work) jika Subject-nya berbentuk tunggal. Sementara “will get” menunjukan ciri dari Future.
1.Conditional Sentences dalam Bentuk Present
Dalam bentuk Present, dependent clause adalah dalam bentuk Past Tense (kata kerja kedua) dan main clause-nya menggunakan modals would, should, could, atau might ditambah kata kerja pertama (V1).
If you studied hard, you would pass your exam
Dependent Clause Main Clause
Kata “studied” pada contoh menunjukan kata kerja kedua dari kata “study” yang merupakan ciri khas dari Past Tense. Semua bentuk Past Tense (kata kerja kedua) digunakan untuk membuat conditional sentences bentuk Present kecuali “to be”. Dalam hal ini semua “to be” yang digunakan hanya “were”, walaupun itu untuk subject tunggal.
If I were you, I would love her very much
Dependent Clause Main Clause
1.Conditional Sentences dalam Bentuk Past
Dalam bentuk Past, dependent clause-nya adalah dalam bentuk Past Perfect Tense (had + V3). Sementara main clause-nya menggunakan would have, should have, could have, dan might have ditambah kata kerja ketiga (V3).
If you had studied, you would have passed your exam
Dependent Clause Main Clause
Pada contoh di atas, kata “had studied” merupakan bentuk Past Perfect (had + V3). Kata “studied” merupakan V3 dari kata “study’.
Possibly related posts: (automatically generated)
SENTENCE
SENTENCE
By robbymilana
Sentence atau kalimat adalah kata atau sekelompok kata-kata yang memiliki makna yang dapat berupa statement (pernyataan), command (perintah), question (pertanyaan), atau exclamation
(seruan). Perhatikan contoh:
1. Statement : My name is ishaq. I am a student.
2. Command : Tell me about your self.
3. Question : What about you?
4. Ezclamation : So, you are a student too!
Setiap sentence atau kalimat dalam bahasa Inggris selalu berisi Subject dan Predicate. Subject dapat berupa kata ganti orang atau benda. Misalnya She (dia perempuan), He (dia laki-laki), It (ini/itu untuk benda), They (mereka), We (kami/kita), I (saya), You (kamu), juga nama-nama orang atau benda (Ranny, pen, cat, father, etc).
Sementara Predicate adalah yang “menerangkan” segala yang berhubungan dengan Subject. Di dalam Predicate biasanya selalu terdapat Verb (kata kerja), Complement (kata pelengkap) dan Modifier (kata keterangan). Perhatikan tabel berikut:
| SUBJECT | PREDICATE | |||
| Verb | Complement | Object | Adverbial (Time/Place) | |
| He | eats |
| some apples | everyday |
| Ranny | is | a student |
|
|
| I | put |
| a book | on the table |
| They | are | students |
|
|
| You | bought |
| some apple | on the market |
Bentuk kalimat atau sentence yang lengkap dalam contoh di atas menjadi:
1. He eats some apple everyday (tanpa complement)
S V O A
2. Ranny is a student (tanpa object & adverbial)
S V C
(Keterangan: S = Subject V= Verb O= Object A= Adverbial C= Complement)
Tags: grammar, Bahasa Inggris, sentence, spok
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